Role Of Womens Rights In Afghanistan

Role Of Womens Rights In Afghanistan Do you think that Afghan nation from the outset needs only men to serve it? Before Islam, women were treated like slaves or property. Their personal consent concerning anything related to their well-being was considered unimportant, to such a degree that they were never even treated as a party to a marriage contract. Women were used for one purpose, and then discarded. They had no independence, could own no property and were not allowed to inherit. In times of war, women were treated as part of the prize. Their condition was unspeakable. In addition, the birth of a daughter in a family was not an occasion for happiness, but was regarded as embarrassment. The practice of killing female children was uncontrolled. With the arrival of Islam a verse came from the Quran criticizing those who practiced female infanticide: And when the news of (the birth of) a female (child) is brought to any of them, his face becomes dark, and he is filled with inward grief! He hides himself from the people because of the evil of that whereof he has been informed. Shall he keep her with dishonor or bury her in the earth? Certainly, evil is their decision (An-Nahle 16:58-59). Afghanistan is the only country in the world where women are symbolized to all other countries. Afghan womens current situation is not only the result of Taliban, but there exists a history over the centuries of Afghan womens situation. Afghanistan is a country that lost all its economical infrastructures passing three decades of war, has been faced with Economical, Social and cultural problems. One of the major problems that Afghans are suffering is violence against womens rights. Taking in to consideration that many activities have been accomplished since 2001 by international and governmental organizations but statistic show that problems have been remained and vast number of women are still suffering from violence. Many of women are deprived from education. A few women participate in political and social activities. As observed in Kabul, a woman suffers from violence every 30 minutes and 3% of women participate in governmental decision making activities. Only 11 percents of women were candidates in the 2010 parliamentary elections. Some of the challenging facts Afghan women faces in daily life are listed as following: Every 30 minutes, an Afghan woman dies during childbirth, 87 percent of Afghan women are illiterate, 30 percent of girls have access to education in Afghanistan, 1 in every 3 Afghan women experience physical, psychological or sexual violence, 44 years is the average life expectancy rate for women in Afghanistan, and 70 to 80 percent of women face forced marriages in Afghanistan (The Plight of Afghan Woman) Since the fall of the Taliban in late 2001, many people would agree that the political and cultural position of Afghan women have improved substantially. The recently adopted Afghan constitution states that the citizens of Afghanistan whether man or woman- has equal rights and duties before the law. So far, women have been allowed to return back to work, the government no longer forces them to wear the all-covering burqa, and they even have been appointed to top positions in the government. Although many people believe that women have equal rights to men, but Afghan women, especially in the rural areas of Afghanistan are not equally treated and their rights are violated. Women are not allowed to get education, women are forced into early age marriage and they have no right to work equally with men and take part in social activities. In many societies today, especially in Afghanistan, a woman is only valued and considered important if she performs the functions of a man, while displaying her feminine attractions to the public. If women get involved in politics, they would stop marrying, having children, and the human race would greatly be affected. Women are emotional creatures, and incapable of making a sound political decision. Afghan men, Typically among Pashtun families, parents believe that their daughters going to school is an immoral act, such as: being friend with the boys and then claiming to marry with the boy of their own choice. They have the ideas saying that their daughters may adopt non-cultural behaviors at school, such as: changes in their clothing, adapting modern clothing and ways of thinking, which are not accepted in Afghan culture. In most afghan families, relatives and friends advise each others for not letting their daughters attend school. A girl is considered as a financial burden on her parents; therefore, parents give their daughters to men who are in their fathers age to receive marriage cost and lessen their home expenses. In the most provinces of Afghanistan, girls are sold to men without knowing a girls consent, and then these girls are used as labors by her husband and in-laws family for carrying physical loads of the whole family. First, its known that education, especially for girls is among basic requirements for an improved life standard in any society, however 85 percents of women and girls are illiterate in Afghanistan. The United States of America International Aid (USAID) allocated fund to address this challenge that constitute the lowest educational level in the country, and girls are facing many problems in this area. Womens education is a foundation for building womens human capital and a requirement for their meaningful participation, effective leadership, and enjoyment equal of rights. Although, the womens right to education is legally protected by law, the Afghan women have been long deprived of their right to education and still the participation of girls and women in various levels and fields of education is limited and they face numerous constraints. Access to equal education opportunity still is a dream for many women. Despite of educational improvements in recent years, women still face a num ber of obstacles in their way to education such as early marriage; restricted movement; cultural barriers, security, transport constraints, shortage of qualified female teachers especially in rural areas, poor school infrastructure and facilities and the lower value attached to girls and womens education. In Afghanistan, the number of girls going to school is less than half the number of school boys and even in some provinces, like Zabul, this percentage is 3%; though the numbers of male and female populations aging between 6-18 year old dont have a considerable difference. Another problem in terms of education in Afghanistan is the number of female schools including elementary and high schools that has decreased considerably. In Kandahar, for example, there are 255 elementary schools, whilst 20 high schools exist in the city. In central region of the country there are 256 elementary schools and only 27 high schools, which show unwillingness of girls to study (Commission). Nearly 10 00 girls schools have been destroyed. Girls and teachers have been killed in a return of the Taliban reign of terror. Only 18% of Afghan women have skilled medical personnel present when they give birth (Feminism, Womens Rights Articles Issues). In Paktia province last year, a shura of elders decided that a 25-year-old man who sexually abused a 7-year-old relative girl should pay compensation to the childs family. They also decreed the girl should marry her rapist when shes older (The Star). Due to fear of Taliban or local warlords, girls cannot go outside their homes. If they go to schools, they are burnt, acid is thrown on their faces, or Taliban kill their family members. Almost in all provinces of Afghanistan girls are sexually abused and harassed. Girls are kidnapped on their way to school. They are kidnapped for different purposes by the Taliban or local warlords, to make money by selling them or to use for smuggling, or marry them by force. Second, forced marriages constitute the other serious problems of women in Afghanistan which is exercised on different ways and forms as to payment of huge dowry, underage marriage, engaging in the very early days when a child is born. Widows are still considered as a heritage and are not allowed to marry other man willingly. Forced marriage is considered to be one of the main cases of women rights violation in all over the country. For instance, only in Helmand Province 144 cases of forced marriage is registered by the Commission so far this year, mostly exercised as badal (girls exchange in families for marriage) and huge payment of dowry. In many parts of Afghanistan, marriages have taken place with threats by the powerful people, gunmen or in repayment for depts. Another reason considerably increases the number of early age marriages is the poverty in Afghan families. Third, in Islam, the value and importance of women in society and the true measure of their success as human beings, is measured with completely different criteria: their fear of Allah (SWT) and obedience to Him, and fulfillment of the duties he has assigned them, particularly that of bearing, nurturing and teaching children. Islam is a practical religion, and responds to human needs and life situations. Many women need, or wish, to work for various reasons. For example, they may possess a needed skill, such as a teacher or a doctor. While Islam does not prohibit women working outside the home, it specifies that the following restrictions be followed to safeguard the dignity and honor of women and the purity and stability of the Islamic society. Muslim women are not forbidden from going out in the community, working, or visiting relatives and female friends, if there is no objection from their guardian/husband and they are covered and behave and speak according to Islamic guidelines and, if necessary, escorted by their Mahram (male relative). However, a womans home should be the main base that she works from. Allah (SWT) instructed the wifes of the Prophet (SAW): O wives of the Prophet! You are not like any other women. If you keep your duty (to Allah), then be not soft in speech, lest he is whose heart is a disease (of hypocrisy or evil desire for adultery, etc.) should be moved with desire, but speak in an honorable manner. And stay in your houses, and do not display yourselves like that of the times of ignorance, and offer prayers perfectly (Iqamat-as-Salat), and give Zakat and obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah wishes only to remove Ar-Rijs (evil deeds and sins, etc.) from you, O members of the family [of the Prophet (SAW)], and to purify you with a thorough purification (Quran Al-Ahzab 33:32-33). Afghanistans social development can only be ensured through democracy and the reduction of poverty, the success of both being assured through full participation of women, especially in rural Afghanistan. Afghanistan has always had elite and middle-class women who asserted their rights and walked towards modernization. But a lot of most Afghan women in rural areas have been one of oppression through tribal customs and dictates. Womens rights are human rights. They are not simply American, or western customs. They are universal values which we have a responsibility to promote throughout the world, and especially in a place like Afghanistan. It is not only the right thing to do; it is the smart thing to do.

Problem Solving Essay -- essays research papers

Problem Solving   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many different strategies that good problem solvers use to solve a problem. Before using a strategy, you must remember a few things. First, take your time. Few good problem solvers solve problems fast. Second, don't give up. You will never solve a problem if you don't try. Last, be flexible. If a first you don't succeed, try another way. And if the second way doesn't work, try a third way.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are a few steps to solving a problem that you should follow. First, read the problem very carefully. Try to understand every word and make sure you know what the problem is asking. If you don't know the meaning of a word, look it up in a dictionary. Second, sort out information that is not needed. Third, devise a plan. Even guesses have to be planned out. Arrange information in tables, draw pictures, and compare the information to another problem you know of. Fourth, carry out the plan. Attempt to solve it and work with care. If the attempt doesn't work then go back and read the problem again. Last, check your work carefully. Don't check by repeating the problem, estimate or find another way to try and to solve the problem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You can understand what the problem means yet still not be able to solve it immediately. One good way to help you solve the problem is to draw a picture. One example of this strategy is suppose you received a problem asking you how many diagonals a...

Hunter Worth Essay

Communication is the process by which information is exchanged and understood by two or more people. A manager must not only possess good communication skills, he must also be able to communicate effectively. When communicating internationally, managers should be aware of critical factors that may affect communication. For example, language barriers, cultural differences, and the channel used to communicate to name a few. Based on Vicente Ruiz’s actions and his conversation with Chuck Moore, the differences in cultural attitudes towards communication in the United States as compared to Mexico that can be detected can be explained according to Geertz Horfstede’s value dimension. Americans tend to be individualistic in that individuals are expected to look after themselves. Mexicans on the other hand lean more towards collectivism, as they prefer a more tightly knit social framework, where members of an organization protect each other’s interest. Where Americans have a low power distance, in contrast Mexicans have a high power distance. Power distance refers to the degree to which people accept inequality in power among institutions, organizations and people. Both sides seem to be very assertive; however, it is obvious that there are differences in cultural attitudes toward communication between these two countries. Americans tend to do business directly, whilst Mexicans prefer to build relationships before going into business, and they also don’t seem to value punctuality as time is a flexible commodity. Understanding these differences is therefore very important in doing business, as cultural attitudes play an important part when doing business internationally. Also if consideration is not given to channel richness, the wrong message could be sent. The channel used in this case caused Chuck Moore’s communication to be treated routinely. Communication, although it appears to be a simple process, must be done properly and effectively to ensure success in business in not only the domestic environment, but also when communicating globally. What was the main purpose of Chuck’s communication to Vicente? To Michael Sato? What factors should he have considered when choosing a channel for his communication to Vicente? Are they the same factors he should have considered when communicating with Michael Sato? Chuck Moore is the national sales manager for Hunter-Worth. He was concerned that a shipment of a new interactive cuddly plush toy would not arrive on time for the Christmas season sales. He therefore communicated with Vicente Ruiz, the plant manager of the Mexican subsidiary that manufactured the toy. The main purpose of Chuck’s communication to Vicente was to inquire about the status of the latest order, which was late. He asked for a production schedule for pending orders, and also requested a specific explanation as to why the Mexican plant seemed to be having problems with shipping orders on time. Michael Sato is the executive vice president for sales and marketing, and he is also Chuck Moore’s supervisor. The man purpose of Chuck’s communication to Michael Sato was to appraise him of the problem he was having with Vicente Ruiz and also his concerns as to the availability of the toy that could be the season’s best seller. Chuck used upward communication, which are messages transmitted from the lower to the higher levels in the organizations hierarchy, and this falls in the type, problems and exceptions, where a manager would inform his supervisor of any serious problems, and to make senior managers aware of difficulties. His communication to Michael was also to inform him of what he had done so far, and also to get advice on what else could be done. Chuck had a choice of many different channels he could have used to communicate with Vicente. He chose to send an email. When choosing a channel for his communication to Vicente, Chuck needed to think about the urgency of the information he required or the nature of the message he was sending and use the best possible channel of communication. This is where channel richness comes in. Channel richness is the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode. The channel that Chuck chose to communicate with was low in channel richness. In the hierarchy of channel richness of which face-to-face communication is the highest and reports or bulletins are the lowest, there are advantages and disadvantages. High channel richness has the advantage of being fast, two-way with fast feed- back. There was a breakdown in communication due to the Chuck’s choice of channel of communication, as his message was distorted by noise in the form of interference by Vicente’s secretary, who treated it as a routine message and handled it accordingly. These are the same factors Chuck should have considered when communicating with Michael Sato, as he was sought a quick resolution to the situation. He again used a channel low in channel richness and his message was dealt with. Since Michael Sato was also his friend, he could have taken the opportunity to meet with him and discuss ideas on how to resolve the problem. Instead Michael Sato dealt with the situation as it was communicated to him. Face- to-face communication in this instance would have been a better channel, thus avoiding misunderstandings. If you were Chuck, what would you have done differently? What steps would you take at this point to make sure the supply of the popular new toy is sufficient to meet the anticipated demand? With an understanding of the cultural differences of his Mexican counterpart, if I were Chuck first of all I would have developed a personal communication network with Vicente Ruiz. This is the cultivation of personal relationships that cross departmental, hierarchical and even organizational boundaries. Since Mexicans like to build relationships before doing business, it would have been profitable to build a personal communication network with the Mexican subsidiary. At this point Chuck may treat this situation as he would a crisis, and taking into consideration the short period of time to fix the situation, he needs to begin with effective communication, since prompt and thoughtful communication with Vicente can turn the situation to his advantage. He should not lose focus at this time, and he should also pay a visit to the Mexican subsidiary to do damage control. With mutual understanding of Vicente’s supply problems and Chuck Moore’s urgent need for an ample supply of the popular new toy, both managers should meet, and listen to each other’s problems and come to a solution that would benefit both sides, thus building a relationship for future references.

The Success Of A Good Farm - 865 Words

In some communities farming is an important factor, not so much in others. You have people who support our farmers and you have the ones who overlook what our farmers provide. Growing up in a farming community has helped me realize and respect the aspect of life but now that I have moved to the city it is apparent that is isn’t as widely known or appreciated. â€Å"I believe in the future of agriculture, with a faith born not of words but of deeds - achievements won by the present and past generations of agriculturists; in the promise of better days through better ways, even as the better things we now enjoy have come to us from the struggles of former years. I believe that to live and work on a good farm, or to be engaged in other agricultural pursuits, is pleasant as well as challenging; for I know the joys and discomforts of agricultural life and hold an inborn fondness for those associations which, even in hours of discouragement, I cannot deny. I believe in leadership from ourselves and respect from others. I believe in my own ability to work efficiently and think clearly, with such knowledge and skill as I can secure, and in the ability of progressive agriculturists to serve our own and the public interest in producing and marketing the product of our toil. I believe in less dependence on begging and more power in bargaining; in the life abundant and enough honest wealth to help make it so--for others as well as myself; in less need for charity and more of it whenShow MoreRelatedStakeholders Who Influence the Purpose of Tesco Plc and Bonzers Farm1271 Words   |  6 PagesRE: Stakeholders who influence the purpose of Tesco Plc and Bonzers Farm This report investigates the different stakeholders involved in influencing the purpose of Britain’s largest retailer Tesco Plc, this will then be compared to Bonzers Farm, which is a successful local business providing fresh produce. 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Should the Uk Retain Its Uncodified Constitution Essay

Should the UKs constitution remain uncodified? A constitution is a set of rules which may be written or unwritten, establishes the distribution of power in a political system, the limits of government jurisdiction, the rights of citizens and the method of amending the constitution itself. An uncodified constitution is unwritten, or at least not written all in one document. The constitution in the UK is found in a variety of sources which are mainly statute and common law, conventions and traditions, European law etc. There are arguments for the UK to both retain an uncodified constitution and to change this to a codified constitution like the USA. Some of the arguments for retaining the uncodified system are that; codification produces†¦show more content†¦However if a codified constitution will introduce judicial tyranny then it defeats the object of reducing concentrated power. In the UK currently the people have the ability the put pressure on the government to make changes to the constitution for example the powers o f the House of Lords were reduced through both Parliament acts of 1911 and 1949 because of a growing belief that an unelected second chamber should no longer have the right to block the policies of an elected government. This was recently changed again so that after the hereditary line to the House of Lords stop after those currently there die. However in a codified constitution judges would be the people policing the constitution, meaning that pressure from the people wouldn’t mean anything because the judiciary are not accountable to the people. On the other hand a codified constitution would clarify the nature of the political system to its citizens. Currently in the UK the constitution is not easy to find which makes it difficult for the UKs citizens to learn the nature of the political system but also all the rights that as a citizen of the UK you should enjoy. For example in the USA the bill of rights is a part of their constitution and every citizen can gain access to these rights. In the USA the whole constitution is on one document and all citizens have access to it. This may make it easier for the UK as a whole to understand the BritishShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Parliamentary Sovereignty1481 Words   |  6 PagesH â€Æ' Introduction The concept of parliamentary sovereignty is one of the imperative components of the supreme legal authority in UK constitution. The parliamentary supremacy is the key legislative authority body to all governmental establishment in the country. Which implies the parliament can charge power to the local authorities, professional bodies and statutory instruments to enact legislation. Practically, the Parliament has the power to make and dissolve any law which means any law passedRead MoreEssay on Legal Profession2005 Words   |  9 PagesContents Introduction: The purpose of the essay I. Legal Profession a) Branches b) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland c) UK Legal System II. Solicitors a) General Practitioner Lawyers b) Traditions c) Origins III. Barristers a) Architects and Executives b) Legal Advisers and Advocates c) Lawyer-Client Relationship IV. Difference between Solicitors and Barristers and different Governing Bodies. a) Bar council or

Short History of Gambling in the United States of America...

Short History of Gambling in the United States of America According to the Commission on the Review of National Policy toward Gambling, gambling in the United States grossed over $40 billion dollars in 1995 (Dunstan, 1997). Professor I. Nelson Rose describes three waves of gambling during the history of the colonies and the United States. The first of these waves began during the start of this great nation and lasted until the mid-1800s. The second wave was at the end of our Civil War and lasted until the early 1900s. Finally, the last wave started during the Great Depression and is still going strong today. I believe a fourth wave has already commenced with new technology paving the way. The new technology consists of, first and†¦show more content†¦The same can be said about substance dependence since those same characteristics are involved, with an added twist for substance dependent clients. 3. Taking the substance in larger amounts or over a longer period than was intended. This can also be construed as the tolerance criterion for gambling where the gambler uses increasing amounts to achieve excitement. 4. Having a persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control substance use. This behavior parallels the loss of control criterion in gambling where the gambler despite repeated attempts to cut down, stop, or control the gambling is unsuccessful. 5. Spending a great deal of time in activities necessary to get the substance. This criterion seems to be consistent with the gambler who has a preoccupation with gambling. 6. Giving up or reducing important social, occupational, or recreational activities due to substance use. This seems to almost mirror the gambler’s risked significant relationship criterion. 7. Continuing to use the substance despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent physical or psychological problem that is likely to have been caused or is exacerbated by the substance. I am unable to find a gambling criterion to match this exact behavior, but in gambling lying, chasing, and illegal acts seem to almost rival the substance dependent characteristic stated. 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Eating Disorder Essay Example For Students

Eating Disorder Essay Eating Disorders A vast amount of research has been done on the subject of eatingdisorders and their causes. Many eating disorders have been proven to emergeduring adolescence and often serve as the foundations to more seriousproblems like anorexia and bulimia. This essay will explore the development ofeating disorders in adolescent girls. It will show that these disorders are closelyconnected to the biological and psychosocial changes that occur during theadolescent period. Many teen girls suffer with anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder in whichgirls use starvation diets to try to lose weight. They starve themselves down toskeletal thinness yet still think that they are overweight. Bulimia, meanwhile, is adisorder in which young women binge on food and then force themselves tovomit. They also often use laxatives to get food out of their system. All of theseyoung women who suffer from this problem are considered to suffer from apsychiatric disorder. While the causes are debatable, o ne thing that is clear isthat these young women have a distorted body image. (Wolf, pp.214-216)What is extremely alarming is that the current thin ideal for women inWestern society, which is unattainable for all but a very small percentage of thepopulation, is compounding this problem. It is a very serious issue whensomeones body shape is determined by genetic disposition and yet they try toalter it to fit some kind of imaginary ideal of how a person should look. Thus, one of the most serious problems is that female nature is not whatsociety says it should be. Some researchers theorize that anorexia is a youngwomans way of canceling puberty. Since they lack body fat, anorexics dont gettheir periods and often lose their sexual characteristics such as public hair. Theyremain, in other words, little girls. There is also the complex issue of womenfeeling that by having an eating disorder they are finally in control of somethingin their life. This may sound strange, but much research has shown that womenwho have been abused or neglected in their childhoods develop these problemsof control. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, pp.70-71). Studies suggest that eating disorders often begin in early tomid-adolescence. They are directly connected to pubertal maturation and theincreases in body fat that occurs during this phase. These biological changesare associated with increased dieting and unhealthy behaviours in earlyadolescence. This problem is aggravated by various problems, includingnegative body image, which has a close association with weight, perfectionismand depression. Family and socialization also play significant roles. It has beenfound, for instance, that mothers with girls with eating disorders are often criticalof their daughters weight and physical appearance. Families with adolescentswho have eating disorders are also often characterized by enmeshment,overprotectiveness, rigidity and lack of conflict resolution. This is connected tothe control issue mentioned previo usly. Interestingly enough, girls who aremore involved in mixed-sex social activities and dating boys are also more likelyto exhibit disordered eating tendencies. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, pp.70-71). Thus, eating disorders must be studied in the context of what certainindividuals face during their developmental stage, or what they may havesuffered in childhood. In general, a combination of the pubertal phase of thefemale body, the loosening of the individuals ties to parents, and thedevelopment of a stable and cohesive personality structure play profound rolesin this process. Psychologists Ilana Attie and J. Brooks-Gun have done somework on this issue. They considered eating disorders within the so-calleddevelopmental perspective, which examines the emergence of eating disordersin adolescent girls as a function of pubertal growth, body image, personalitydevelopment, and family relationships. The two psychologists examined 193white females and their mothers during the formers middle-schooled years(13.93 years) and then two years later. They set out to see how much thedevelopment of eating problems represented a mode of accommodation topubertal change. Taking a developmental approa ch, the authors studied theimpact of the pubertal transition relative to other aspects of the femaleadolescent experience. (Attie and Brooks-Gun). These researchers emphasized one very significant fact: that as girlsmature sexually, they accumulate large quantities of fat. For adolescent girls,this growth in fat tissue is one of the most dramatic physical changes associatedwith puberty, adding an average of 11 kg of weight in the form of body fat. Thisincrease in fat is, in turn, directly connected to desires to be thinner. (Attie andBrooks-Gun, p.7O) This reality is due to the fact that, as Attie and Brooks-Gundemonstrate, female body image is intimately bound up with subjectiveperceptions of weight. Prepubescent girls who perceive themselves asunderweight are most satisfied while the opposite occurs for those who areoverweight or perceive themselves to be such. Thus, Attie and Brooks-Gunfound that dieting emerged as the female body developed, and that is was afunction of the body image transformation occurring at puberty. (Attie andBrooks-Gun, p.71)Aside from the pubertal changes that the authors found significant in thisissue, family relationships were also detected to influence the emergence ofeating disorders. Families that set high standards for achievement, gave littlesupport for autonomy, and blurred interpersonal boundaries left adolescent girlswith deficits in their self-esteem. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, p.71) Once again, asmentioned earlier, it makes sense in a very complex way that young girls whohave been abused in this way end up controlling things that are ultimately notgood for them. For instance, a young girl who was made to feel powerless insome ways in her family (i.e. sexual or physical abuse) may end up feeling asense of individual identity if she can control, for example, when she vomitsand when she does not. Now, at least, she can have control over something inher life. Personality factors were also found to contribute to the development ofeating disorders. Characteristics such as perfectionist strivings, feelings ofineffectiveness, depressive symptoms and self-regulatory deficits were seenfrequently in patients with eating disorders. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, p.71) The authors found, for instance, that girls who early in adolescence feltmost negatively about their bodies were more likely to develop eating problemstwo years later. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, p.76). Thus, overall, Attie and Brooks-Gun found that eating problems emergedin response to physical changes of the pubertal period. Personality variablesentered this problem, but only at a later stage. Atties and Brooks-Guns findingssuggest that body shape becomes a primary focus and that efforts to controlweight intensify during the middle-school years. In other words, the rapidaccumulation of body fat that is part of the female experience of puberty oftenfunctions as a triggering effect, in the sense that it starts the attempt ofweight-loss diets. Atties and Brooks-Guns study did, of course, have its limitations. Theauthors themselves admitted that their investigation focused only on a sample ofwhite girls from upper-middle-class families. Yet most evidence has suggestedthat bulimia nervosa is more prevalent in middle-and-upper middle class whitegirls, although there is evidence suggesting that eating disorders are increasingin other ethnic and social class groups, especially for girls who experience morepressure to acculturate to white, middle-class standards. (Graber, Brooks-Gun,Paikoff and Warren, p.823) In other words, what we see here is that the valuesand ideals held by the dominant society are an important issue as well. Recentstudies have shown us that adolescent girls in competitive environments thatemphasize weight and appearance experience increased social pressures tomeet the thin ideal. (Attie and Brooks-Gun, p.7O) Another study that very much confirmed the finding s of Attie andBrooks-Gunn examined 116 adolescent girls drawn from a normal population ofstudents enrolled in private schools in a major metropolitan area. These girlswere followed over an 8-year period from young adolescence to youngadulthood. Over a quarter of the sample scored above the level identifying aserious eating problem at each of the 3 times of assessment (14, 16, and 22years of age.) (Graber, Brooks-Gunn, Paikoff, and Warren). Like Atties andBrooks-Gunns study, this project also found that eating disorders were triggeredduring the pubertal stage of girls. This is why the researchers recommended,among all else, that primary prevention be indicated for all girls in earlyadolescence. (Graber, Brooks-Gun, Paikoff, and Warren, pp.831-832). venonous snakes EssayFor instance, a young girl with an eating disorder who wants to get bettermust write down whatever is haunting her: I ate a hot dog today. After this,under the heading Cognitive distortion she should answer why this wouldbother her. Let us suppose she writes: Well, because now I will get fat. Thenshe must ask why this would bother her. It is here that we begin getting to thedark recesses of the psyche and where many people who are in denial would notbe able to continue. But this girl must continue if she wants to get better. Suppose she writes: Well, because then I would be worthless and no one wouldlike me. Then she must ask again why this would bother her. She answers:Then I would be alone and would have no reason to live. But ultimately, theremight be even darker things at the bottom of the list, perhaps something like: Illprove I can stay fat, then men wouldnt like me and then they would not sexuallyviolate me anymore. The point here is that the dark reasons for distortedthoughts would have to be faced. The person must recognize the root of theirdysfunctional behaviour, no matter how painful it is. After this exercise, as Burns teaches, the person would make a parallelchart of rational response in which they would answer every distorted thought. To I ate a hot dog today the person would write, alongside it: That is ok, it isgood and healthy to eat. To now I will get fat, she would write: Well, notnecessarily because I am already underweight and even if I was, I only ate onehot dog. The next step would be the hardest ground to start working one, sincethe problem of this person is rooted in distorted thinking. To Well, because thenI would be worthless and no one would like me she would have to startconsidering the issues of whether her weight was connected to her self-worth. She would have to start understanding that self-worth was based on somethingintrinsic, not on something external. In this step and process lurks the greatesthealing process, for so many of these illnesses are based on illogical thoughtpatterns. To Then I would be alone and would have no reason to live she couldstart seeing the ridiculous nature of this underlying belief. She could write downall the friends she has that would not care less how much she weighed. Shecould write down how she would never be alone anyway and that being alonemight not be the end of the world. This is just an example of course, and it is not to suggest that this writingprocess of cognitive distortion and positive response is the solution to allthese serious problems. But what is important in dealing with eating disorders,and this is the point, is that the person who is suffering must be made to startthinking properly before anything else is done. Medication is not going to help ayoung girl who is convinced t hat looking like a skeleton is the only way to getmen to like her, and that her life would not be worth living if men did not find hersexually attractive. Obviously these ideas and beliefs would have to be dealtwith before any other approach is taken. The point here is that many young girlssuffering from eating disorders are fighting something and it is connected to adistortion in the process of thinking. David Burns argues, with much success,that this thinking pattern must change before anything else. He also shows thetremendous success that it can provide in healing all kind of psychologicaldisorders. (Burns, pp.383-405)To be sure, eating disorders are very serious illnesses; they do not haveeasily detectable causes and they do not have easily related cures. But we doknow several things that can be done. Along with making a young girl aware ofher thinking, and making her be honest with herself and about her past, it is alsoimportant to clarify to her the social pressures that are sending her falsemessages. Education, therefore, is a must in the context of teaching that thesocial ideal of thinness perpetuated in Western society is distorted and flawed. Itis not connected to human nature and it is not connected to reality. Once youngwomen become aware that there is nothing wrong with their own personal bodyimage, a significant amount can be done on this issue. More than anything else, we need to find compassion and understandingfor the victims of eating disorders. While we work on helping these individuals,we must also fight the social forces that objectify and exploit female body imageto the disadvantage of not only women, but of all humanity. No one profits if onehalf of the human race is being held under attack by socially constructed bodyimages that are rooted in morbid intent and infantile fantasy. BibliographyAttie, Ilana and Brooks-Gunn, J. Development of Eating Problems in AdolescentGirls: A Longitudinal Study, Developmental Psychology, 1989, vol. 25, no.1,7O-79. Burns, David. Feeling Good. The New Mood Therapy (New York: Avon Books,1980)Cauffman, Elizabeth, and Steinberg, Laurence. Interactive Effects ofMenarcheal Status and Dating on Dieting and Disordered Eating AmongAdolescent Girls, Developmental Psychology, 1996, vol. 32, no.4, 631-635. Graber, Julia, Brooks-Gunn, J., Paikoff, Roberta, and Warren, Michelle. Prediction of Eating Problems: An 8-Year Study of Adolescent Girls,Developmental Psychology, 1994, vol.3O, No.6, 823-834. Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth (Toronto: Random House, 1991) Words/ Pages : 2,818 / 24